Cranberry 100% concentrate: What It Is, Benefits, Dosage, and Sources
Cranberry 100% concentrate refers to a product derived from cranberries where the water content has been significantly reduced, resulting in a more potent, condensed form of the fruit's natural compounds. This concentration process aims to deliver the beneficial properties of cranberries in a smaller volume, whether as a liquid, powder, or capsule. Unlike cranberry juice cocktails, which often contain added sugars and other fruit juices, 100% concentrate typically means no additional ingredients beyond cranberry and, sometimes, a minimal amount of water to rehydrate it for bottling. Understanding what this concentrate entails, its potential advantages, appropriate usage, and where to find it can help consumers make informed choices.
Ocean Spray® Pure Cranberry Juice - Pure 100% Fruit Juice for what is cranberry 100% concentrate
When a product like Ocean Spray® Pure Cranberry Juice is labeled as "Pure 100% Fruit Juice," and specifically mentions "from concentrate," it signifies a particular manufacturing process. Initially, cranberries are pressed to extract their juice. This raw juice then undergoes a process where much of its water content is removed through evaporation, creating a concentrated form. This concentrate is easier and more cost-effective to store and transport. Later, when it's time for bottling, water is added back to restore it to a single-strength juice consistency. The "100% Fruit Juice" claim indicates that no other fruit juices or sweeteners have been added beyond what's naturally present in the cranberries themselves, once reconstituted.
The practical implications of this process are several. From a consumer perspective, a 100% pure cranberry juice from concentrate should ideally retain the nutritional profile of the original fruit, albeit after being processed. The primary benefit is convenience and accessibility; concentrates allow for year-round availability of cranberry juice regardless of harvest seasons. The trade-off might be subtle differences in flavor compared to freshly pressed, never-from-concentrate juice, although manufacturers strive to minimize this. The pasteurization process involved in concentrate production also ensures shelf stability. For example, a bottle of Ocean Spray® Pure Cranberry Juice, even if made from concentrate, is intended to deliver the characteristic tart taste and beneficial compounds of cranberries without the added sugars found in many cranberry juice blends. This makes it a distinct choice for those seeking the properties of cranberry without unnecessary caloric additions.
What's the Difference Between Cranberry Juice and Cranberry Concentrate?
The terms "cranberry juice" and "cranberry concentrate" are often used interchangeably, but they represent distinct products, especially when considering their potency and common uses.
Cranberry Juice typically refers to the ready-to-drink liquid form. This can be:
- 100% Cranberry Juice (from concentrate or not from concentrate): This product contains only cranberry juice and water (if from concentrate). It's tart and generally unsweetened.
- Cranberry Juice Cocktail/Blend: This is the most common form found in supermarkets. It's a blend of cranberry juice (often from concentrate) with other fruit juices (like apple or grape) and significant amounts of added sugars (e.g., high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose). The actual cranberry content can be as low as 25% or even less.
Cranberry Concentrate, on the other hand, is the result of removing a substantial portion of water from cranberry juice. This makes it a much more potent, condensed product. It can be found in several forms:
- Liquid Concentrate: Often sold in smaller bottles, this is a highly concentrated liquid that typically needs to be diluted with water before consumption. It's intensely tart.
- Powdered Concentrate: The liquid concentrate is further dried into a powder, which can be mixed with water or other beverages, or encapsulated into supplements.
- Capsules/Tablets: These are usually powdered concentrates or extracts, providing a standardized dose of cranberry compounds.
The key difference lies in the concentration of active compounds and the presence of added ingredients. Cranberry concentrate, in its pure form, offers a higher density of beneficial compounds, such as proanthocyanidins (PACs), per serving compared to an equal volume of ready-to-drink cranberry juice, especially juice cocktails. The choice between them depends on the purpose: if you want a refreshing drink, 100% cranberry juice or a cocktail might be your choice. If you're seeking a higher dose of cranberry compounds for specific health reasons, a concentrate (liquid, powder, or supplement) might be more appropriate, as it avoids the large volume and potential added sugars of ready-to-drink juices. For instance, someone looking to support urinary tract health might find a small dose of liquid concentrate diluted in water more effective and less calorically dense than consuming several glasses of a sugary juice cocktail.
Ocean Spray® Pure Unsweetened Cranberry, 100% ... for what is cranberry 100% concentrate
The specific labeling "Ocean Spray® Pure Unsweetened Cranberry, 100%..." emphasizes several critical aspects of the product related to cranberry concentrate. The term "Pure Unsweetened" directly addresses one of the major concerns with many cranberry products: added sugars. Most popular cranberry juice beverages are heavily sweetened to counteract the fruit's natural tartness, which significantly increases their caloric content and can undermine potential health benefits. By stating "Pure Unsweetened," the manufacturer signals that no sugars or artificial sweeteners have been added. This makes it a more suitable option for individuals monitoring their sugar intake or those who prefer the authentic, tart flavor of cranberries.
The "100%" component, as discussed, indicates that the product consists solely of cranberry juice (reconstituted from concentrate) and water, without other fruit juices or fillers. This means that the product, while processed through concentration and reconstitution, aims to deliver the full spectrum of cranberry compounds without dilution from other fruit sources.
The practical implications for consumers are significant. For those specifically seeking the potential health benefits associated with cranberries, an unsweetened 100% product is generally preferred. It allows for controlled consumption of cranberry compounds without the downsides of excess sugar. However, its intense tartness can be a challenge for some palates. Therefore, consumers often dilute it further with water or mix it with other, naturally sweeter juices (like apple or orange juice, if they prefer) to make it more palatable, effectively creating their own customized blend. For example, a person aiming to consume cranberry for urinary tract health might opt for this unsweetened 100% juice, perhaps mixing a small amount with sparkling water or a splash of another juice, rather than relying on a sugary cranberry juice cocktail that might only contain a fraction of actual cranberry. This approach offers greater control over ingredient intake.
Cranberry Concentrate - Dynamic Health for what is cranberry 100% concentrate
When a brand like Dynamic Health offers a "Cranberry Concentrate," it typically refers to a product that is highly condensed and often intended for specific purposes, rather than casual beverage consumption. These concentrates are usually much more potent than even "100% cranberry juice from concentrate" found in the beverage aisle. They are often marketed as dietary supplements or health-focused products.
These types of concentrates are usually produced by taking the pure juice, removing a significant amount of water, and sometimes filtering out pulp or other solids to create a very dense liquid. The level of concentration can vary greatly between brands, but the general idea is to provide a higher dose of cranberry's active compounds in a smaller serving size. For instance, a bottle of Dynamic Health's concentrate might state that one serving (e.g., one tablespoon) is equivalent to consuming several glasses of regular cranberry juice.
The practical implications are primarily related to potency and convenience. These concentrates are ideal for individuals who want to maximize their intake of cranberry compounds without consuming large volumes of liquid or the added sugars often found in juices. They are frequently used by those seeking the potential benefits for urinary tract health, where a higher concentration of proanthocyanidins (PACs) is often desired. However, due to their intense tartness and potency, they are almost always diluted before consumption. A typical use case might involve mixing a small amount (e.g., 1-2 tablespoons) into a glass of water, juice, or a smoothie. The trade-off is often cost per serving, as these concentrated products can be more expensive upfront, though they may offer better value in terms of active ingredient delivery compared to large bottles of diluted juice. Consumers should always check the label for specific concentration ratios, serving suggestions, and any added ingredients, as some concentrates might still contain natural sweeteners or preservatives.
Cranberry juice for what is cranberry 100% concentrate
Cranberry juice, in its broadest sense, is the liquid extract from cranberries. However, its composition and benefits vary significantly depending on how it's processed and what other ingredients are added. Understanding these variations is crucial when considering "what is cranberry 100% concentrate" because the concentrate forms the basis for many cranberry juice products.
Generally, cranberry juice can be categorized into:
- Freshly Pressed/Not From Concentrate (NFC): This is cranberry juice extracted directly from the fruit and minimally processed (often pasteurized for safety and shelf-life) without removing and then re-adding water. It represents the closest form to eating the raw fruit in liquid form. These are less common and often more expensive due to transportation and storage costs.
- From Concentrate: As discussed, this involves pressing the cranberries, evaporating water to create a concentrate, and then adding water back later to restore it to juice consistency. Most 100% cranberry juices on the market fall into this category.
- Cranberry Juice Cocktail/Blend: This is the most prevalent form. It typically contains a small percentage of cranberry juice (often from concentrate), blended with other fruit juices (like apple, grape, or pear juice) and a substantial amount of added sugars (sucrose, high-fructose corn syrup, etc.). These products are designed for palatability rather than maximizing cranberry benefits.
The practical implications for consumers revolve around nutritional content and potential health benefits. If the goal is to consume cranberry for its specific compounds, such as proanthocyanidins (PACs), then a 100% cranberry juice (whether NFC or from concentrate) with no added sugars is the most effective choice among ready-to-drink options. Cranberry juice cocktails, while often more palatable, dilute the cranberry compounds and introduce significant amounts of added sugar, which can counteract any potential health advantages. For example, someone aiming to support urinary tract health would find far more benefit from a small serving of 100% unsweetened cranberry juice compared to a large glass of a sweetened cranberry juice cocktail, which might contain as much sugar as a soda. The "100% concentrate" aspect directly relates to the manufacturing process of the more beneficial juice types, ensuring that the fruit's integrity is maintained, even if in a reconstituted form.
100% Juice Blend Cranberry for what is cranberry 100% concentrate
A "100% Juice Blend Cranberry" product, while sounding similar to "100% cranberry juice," carries a distinct meaning that impacts its composition and potential benefits. When a label specifies "100% Juice Blend" followed by "Cranberry" (or "Cranberry Blend"), it indicates that the product is made entirely from fruit juices, but not necessarily entirely from cranberry juice. Instead, it's a mix of cranberry juice with other 100% fruit juices, such as apple, grape, or cherry. The "100% Juice" part signifies that there are no added sugars, artificial flavors, or preservatives; all the sweetness and flavor come from the fruits themselves.
The core difference here lies in the proportion of actual cranberry. While it's a "100% juice," the cranberry content might be relatively low, with other, often sweeter and less expensive, fruit juices making up the bulk of the blend. These other juices are typically added to temper the intense tartness of pure cranberry and make the product more palatable to a wider audience. Like many other juices, these blends often utilize concentrates of various fruits, which are then reconstituted and mixed.
The practical implications are important for consumers focused on cranberry's specific properties. If the primary goal is to consume the unique compounds found in cranberries (like A-type proanthocyanidins, or PACs), then a "100% Juice Blend Cranberry" might not be the most efficient choice due to the dilution effect from other juices. While it avoids added sugars, it also dilutes the concentration of cranberry-specific beneficial compounds. For instance, a person looking to consume cranberry for its potential role in urinary tract health might find a pure 100% cranberry juice (unsweetened) or a cranberry concentrate more effective than a "100% Juice Blend Cranberry," even if the blend is more enjoyable to drink. The blend offers a good option for those seeking a naturally sweet, 100% fruit juice beverage with a hint of cranberry flavor, without the intense tartness of pure cranberry or the added sugars of a juice cocktail. It's a middle ground that provides fruit nutrition without being specifically a targeted cranberry product.
Benefits of Cranberry 100% Concentrate
Cranberry 100% concentrate, due to its higher potency compared to diluted juices, is often sought after for specific health-related benefits. The primary active compounds in cranberries are proanthocyanidins (PACs), particularly A-type PACs, which are believed to play a key role in some of these benefits.
Urinary Tract Health
The most well-known benefit attributed to cranberries, and by extension, cranberry concentrate, is its potential role in supporting urinary tract health. The A-type PACs in cranberries are thought to work by preventing certain bacteria, primarily E. coli, from adhering to the walls of the urinary tract. By making it difficult for bacteria to attach, they are more likely to be flushed out of the system. This mechanism is distinct from antibiotics, as cranberries do not kill bacteria but rather inhibit their adhesion.
Antioxidant Properties
Cranberries are rich in antioxidants, including PACs, quercetin, and anthocyanins. Concentrated forms deliver these compounds in higher amounts per serving. Antioxidants help protect the body's cells from damage caused by free radicals, which are unstable molecules linked to aging and various chronic diseases. Regularly consuming antioxidant-rich foods or supplements may contribute to overall cellular health.
Cardiovascular Health
Emerging research suggests that cranberries and their concentrates may offer benefits for cardiovascular health. This is partly due to their antioxidant content and anti-inflammatory properties. Some studies indicate that cranberry consumption might help improve cholesterol levels, reduce blood pressure, and enhance endothelial function (the lining of blood vessels), all of which are factors in heart health.
Digestive Health (Limited Evidence)
While less studied than urinary tract benefits, some preliminary research suggests cranberries might have a role in supporting digestive health. This could be due to their fiber content (in whole cranberries or less filtered concentrates) and their potential to influence gut microbiota. However, more robust human studies are needed to confirm these effects.
Oral Health
Similar to their action in the urinary tract, the PACs in cranberries may also help prevent bacteria from adhering to teeth and gums. This could potentially reduce the formation of plaque and contribute to better oral hygiene, though this is not a primary reason for most people to consume cranberry concentrate.
Considerations
It's important to note that while research supports some of these benefits, especially for urinary tract health, the effectiveness can depend on the concentration of PACs in the product and individual factors. Cranberry concentrate is not a treatment for existing infections but rather a potential aid for maintaining health.
Dosage of Cranberry 100% Concentrate
Determining the appropriate dosage for cranberry 100% concentrate can be complex because it varies significantly based on the product form (liquid, powder, capsules) and the specific concentration of active compounds, particularly proanthocyanidins (PACs). There is no universally established Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for cranberry concentrate, but scientific studies often refer to PAC content.
Key Considerations for Dosage
- PAC Content: The most crucial factor is the standardized amount of PACs. Many studies on urinary tract health suggest an effective daily dose of PACs, typically ranging from 36 mg to 72 mg. However, not all cranberry products list their PAC content, making direct comparison difficult.
- Product Form:
* Liquid Concentrate: If using a liquid concentrate, the label will provide a recommended serving size, often 1-2 tablespoons (15-30 ml), which is then diluted in water. This amount is usually formulated to provide a beneficial dose of cranberry compounds.
* Powdered Concentrate/Capsules: Supplements often provide standardized doses. Look for products that specify the PAC content per serving. Dosages can range from 250 mg to 1000 mg of concentrate powder, taken once or twice daily, to achieve the desired PAC intake.
- Purpose of Use:
* General Wellness/Antioxidant Support: A lower daily dose might suffice.
* Urinary Tract Health Support: A higher, consistent dose of PACs (e.g., 36 mg or more) is often recommended.
- Individual Factors: Body weight, overall health, and individual response can influence optimal dosage.
General Dosage Guidelines (Example)
Since specific product concentrations vary, these are general examples. Always refer to the product label for precise instructions.
| Product Type | Typical Serving Size | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Liquid 100% Concentrate | 1-2 tablespoons (15-30 ml) | Dilute in 4-8 oz of water or juice. Often taken once or twice daily. Check for PAC content if listed. |
| Cranberry Concentrate Powder | 500-1000 mg | Mix into water, juice, or smoothies. Often equivalent to a certain amount of fresh cranberries or juice. Look for PAC standardization. |
| Cranberry Concentrate Capsules | 250-500 mg (1-2 capsules) | Usually standardized for PACs (e.g., 36 mg PACs per capsule). Taken once or twice daily. |
Important Considerations:
- Read Labels Carefully: Always follow the dosage instructions provided on the specific cranberry concentrate product you are using. Manufacturers formulate their products based on their specific concentration levels.
- PAC Standardization: When purchasing supplements, prioritize products that clearly state the amount of proanthocyanidins (PACs) per serving, ideally using a validated test method. This allows for a more accurate comparison of potency.
- Consistency: For potential benefits, especially for urinary tract health, consistent daily intake is often more important than sporadic high doses.
- Not for Treatment: Cranberry concentrate is not a substitute for medical treatment of active urinary tract infections. If you suspect an infection, consult a healthcare professional.
- Consult a Professional: If you have underlying health conditions, are pregnant or breastfeeding, or are taking medications, consult your doctor or a registered dietitian before starting any new supplement regimen, including cranberry concentrate.
Sources of Cranberry 100% Concentrate
Cranberry 100% concentrate is available in various forms, catering to different preferences and needs. These sources typically aim to deliver the beneficial compounds of cranberries in a more potent and convenient manner than diluted juices.
1. Liquid Concentrate
This is one of the most common forms. Liquid concentrates are typically sold in smaller bottles (e.g., 16 oz or 32 oz) and are highly concentrated, requiring dilution before consumption.
- Characteristics: Very tart, dark red color, thick consistency. Often labeled "pure cranberry concentrate" or "unsweetened cranberry concentrate."
- Where to Find: Health food stores, online retailers, sometimes in the natural foods section of larger supermarkets. Brands like Dynamic Health, Lakewood Organic, and sometimes even Ocean Spray (in their "pure" or "concentrate" lines) offer this.
- Usage: Dilute 1-2 tablespoons in a glass of water, sparkling water, or mix with other juices. Can also be added to smoothies or used in recipes.
2. Powdered Concentrate
Liquid concentrate can be further processed into a dry powder. This form offers excellent shelf stability and versatility.
- Characteristics: Fine, reddish-purple powder. Highly concentrated.
- Where to Find: Primarily online retailers and health food stores. Often sold by supplement brands.
- Usage: Can be mixed into water, juice, smoothies, yogurt, or sprinkled over food. It's often used by those who prefer to avoid liquids or want to incorporate cranberry into various dishes.
3. Capsules or Tablets
Cranberry concentrate is frequently encapsulated into dietary supplements. This form provides a convenient, pre-measured dose and is often standardized for its active compounds (PACs).
- Characteristics: Easy to consume, no taste, often standardized for PAC content (e.g., 36 mg PACs per capsule).
- Where to Find: Pharmacies, health food stores, online supplement retailers. Numerous supplement brands offer cranberry concentrate capsules.
- Usage: Swallowed with water, typically once or twice daily, as recommended on the product label. This is a popular choice for those specifically seeking the urinary tract health benefits without consuming juice.
4. 100% Cranberry Juice (from concentrate, unsweetened)
While not a "concentrate" in the sense of a highly condensed product requiring further dilution, 100% unsweetened cranberry juice that is "from concentrate" is a readily available source of cranberry's benefits without added sugars. The concentration process is part of its manufacturing.
- Characteristics: Tart, ready-to-drink (though many prefer to dilute it further), no added sugars.
- Where to Find: Most supermarkets, often in the juice aisle. Brands like Ocean Spray and Northland offer these.
- Usage: Drink straight (if you can handle the tartness), dilute with water, or mix with other unsweetened juices.
What to Look For When Sourcing:
- "100% Pure" or "Unsweetened": This ensures you're getting actual cranberry without added sugars or other fruit juices.
- PAC Content: For supplements, look for standardization of proanthocyanidins (PACs), often listed in milligrams per serving. This indicates the potency relevant to urinary tract health.
- Ingredient List: Check for minimal ingredients. Ideally, it should just be cranberry (and water if reconstituted).
- Reputable Brands: Choose brands known for quality and transparency in their sourcing and manufacturing processes.
- Organic Certification (Optional): If organic is important to you, look for relevant certifications.
By understanding these different sources and what to look for on labels, consumers can select the cranberry 100% concentrate product that best fits their dietary preferences and health goals.
Comparison of Cranberry Products
Understanding the differences between various cranberry products is essential for making an informed choice, especially when the goal is to leverage the unique compounds found in cranberries. Here's a comparison table to clarify the distinctions:
| Feature/Product Type | Cranberry 100% Concentrate (Liquid/Powder) | Cranberry Concentrate Capsules/Tablets | 100% Cranberry Juice (from concentrate, unsweetened) | Cranberry Juice Cocktail/Blend (e.g., "100% Juice Blend Cranberry") |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cranberry Content | Very High (highly condensed) | Very High (highly condensed) | High (pure cranberry, reconstituted) | Low to Moderate (mixed with other juices) |
| Added Sugars | Typically None | None | None | Often High (for cocktails), None (for 100% juice blends) |
| Potency (PACs) | Highest per unit volume/weight | Highest (often standardized) | Moderate per serving (requires larger volume) | Lowest per serving (due to dilution) |
| Flavor Profile | Extremely Tart (requires dilution) | None (swallowed whole) | Very Tart | Sweet to Very Sweet (palatable) |
| Convenience | Requires dilution/mixing | Very convenient (pre-dosed) | Ready to drink (can be diluted for taste) | Very convenient (ready to drink) |
| Cost (per serving) | Moderate to High | Moderate to High | Low to Moderate | Low |
| Primary Use | Targeted health support, DIY beverages | Targeted health support, daily supplement | Daily beverage, general wellness | Refreshing drink, general consumption |
| Examples | Dynamic Health, Lakewood Organic | AZO, Nature's Way, NOW Foods | Ocean Spray Pure, Northland Pure | Ocean Spray Cranberry Juice Cocktail, Welch's 100% Juice Cranberry Blend |
This table illustrates that while all these products originate from cranberries, their processing, composition, and intended use vary significantly. For those specifically seeking the therapeutic benefits of cranberries, especially concerning urinary tract health, products with higher and measurable PAC content (like concentrates or standardized capsules) are generally more effective than diluted juices or sugary cocktails.
FAQ
Is 100% cranberry juice from concentrate good for you?
Yes, 100% cranberry juice from concentrate, when unsweetened, can be good for you. It retains the beneficial compounds of cranberries, such as proanthocyanidins (PACs) and antioxidants, which are associated with supporting urinary tract health and providing cellular protection. The "from concentrate" aspect refers to a manufacturing process where water is removed and then re-added, but it should not diminish the nutritional value compared to "not from concentrate" juice, provided no other ingredients or sugars are added. However, it's intensely tart, and some people may find it difficult to drink without dilution or mixing with other juices. The key is to choose versions with no added sugars to maximize the health benefits and avoid unnecessary caloric intake.
What is the difference between cranberry extract and cranberry concentrate?
While often used interchangeably in common language, there's a technical distinction between cranberry extract and cranberry concentrate:
- Cranberry Concentrate: This is made by removing water from cranberry juice, resulting in a condensed liquid or powder. It contains all the water-soluble components of the juice in a more potent form, including sugars, acids, vitamins, and the beneficial proanthocyanidins (PACs). It's essentially a more potent version of the whole juice.
- Cranberry Extract: This typically implies a further refinement process. An extract usually involves isolating or standardizing specific compounds from the cranberry, often the proanthocyanidins (PACs). The extraction process might use solvents to pull out these specific compounds, leaving behind other components like sugars or fibers. Extracts are often much more potent in terms of PAC content per milligram and are commonly found in capsules or tablets, where they are standardized to contain a specific amount of PACs.
In essence, concentrate is a condensed form of the whole juice, while an extract is a more refined product that focuses on specific active compounds. Both aim to deliver cranberry benefits, but extracts generally offer a higher, more consistent dose of the key active ingredients.
Can cranberry juice help with BPH?
There is currently limited scientific evidence to suggest that cranberry juice or cranberry concentrate directly helps with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH), also known as an enlarged prostate. BPH is a common condition in older men that can cause urinary symptoms. While cranberries are known for their potential to support urinary tract health by preventing bacterial adhesion, BPH is not caused by bacterial infection but rather by benign growth of prostate tissue. Some anecdotal reports or very preliminary studies might exist, but robust, large-scale clinical trials specifically linking cranberry products to improvements in BPH symptoms or prostate size are lacking. Men experiencing symptoms of BPH should consult a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment. Cranberry products should not be used as a substitute for prescribed medications or medical advice for BPH.
Conclusion
Cranberry 100% concentrate offers a potent and versatile way to incorporate the beneficial compounds of cranberries into one's diet. Whether in liquid, powder, or capsule form, it represents a more concentrated source of these compounds, particularly proanthocyanidins (PACs), compared to most ready-to-drink cranberry juices. This makes it a preferred option for those specifically seeking to support urinary tract health or boost their antioxidant intake without the added sugars prevalent in many cranberry products.
Understanding the distinctions between pure concentrate, 100% juice from concentrate, and cranberry juice blends is crucial for consumers. While "100% juice" indicates no added sugars, a "blend" will dilute the cranberry content with other fruit juices. For targeted benefits, focusing on products that specify PAC content, especially in supplements, can provide greater assurance of potency. As with any dietary supplement, consulting a healthcare professional is advisable, especially for individuals with existing health conditions or those taking medications. Ultimately, cranberry 100% concentrate provides a practical avenue for harnessing the specific attributes of this tart fruit.
Nutrienting Team
The Nutrienting editorial team analyzes supplement labels from the NIH Dietary Supplement Label Database and scores them against clinical research. Our goal is to help you make data-driven supplement decisions.